Agricultural gene editing remains a hope rather than a surety. After years of hesitancy over the role of genetically engineered crops (both genetically modified and gene edited) across the continent, in recent years many nations have committed more funding to research and development. Although a few transgenic genetically modified (GM) crops are commercially grown, the process for approvals remains challenging in every country. Gene editing was aspirationally endorsed under the African Union Agenda 2063. So far, two countries —Nigeria and Kenya—have implemented guidelines for a case-by-case review of genome-edited crops, but no African country has yet approved one. Some gene-edited crops are in trials.
Almost all the research on genetically engineered crops in Africa is spearheaded by public scientists. Each country manages its own policies and for the most part is pursuing an independent path in regulating GM crops and gene editing.
Major staple food crops addressed in this article and the countries where genome-edited trials are underway (Karembu, 2021)
Seven African countries — Nigeria (maize/corn, cowpea, cotton, soybean), South Africa (cotton; soybean, maize/corn), Ethiopia (cotton), Kenya (cotton), Malawi (cotton), Sudan (cotton) and Eswatini [formerly Swaziland] (cotton) — have commercialized four GM crops focusing on insect resistance or herbicide tolerance. (Burkina Faso (cotton) and Egypt (cotton) had grown GM transgenic crops commercially but approvals were suspended.) Eleven African countries have 34 additional GM crops in trials at various levels of advancement.
Regulatory documents for commercial release of GM crops and status of legislation on gene edited plants
Here is the regulatory status for the commercialization of GM and gene edited crops in these 11 African countries:
It is anticipated that the approval process for gene-edited crops, at least initially, will fall under established transgenic GM regulations in most countries even as most others are setting up separate and distinct gene editing oversight. There are a few promising exceptions. So far, two countries, Nigeria and Kenya, have implemented regulations for a case-by-case review of genome-edited crops.
Nigeria, in December 2020 approved guidelines on crop gene editing issued by the National Biosafety Management Agency (NBMA), becoming the first African nation to issue science-based gene editing guidelines. The guidelines break from GM regulations, stating that when gene editing of a product does not lead to a new combination of genetic material (as happens with GM transgenics), a new case-by-case regulatory provision leading to issuance of Biosafety Approval (Clearance) would apply. If however the gene editing of the product leads to a new combination, the classification of ‘’GMO’’ would be given, and the Act and the National Biosafety Regulations 2017 would apply.
Kenya’s National Biosafety Authority published science-based guidelines in February 2022 to facilitate the development of gene-edited research and plant and animal products. Both research and products will be reviewed on a case-by-case basis. The guidelines provide for early consultation to determine the regulatory pathway to be adopted in view of potential outcomes of genome editing procedures. The guidelines do not extend to detailing how risk assessment and risk management of genome-edited products will be conducted, which means that field trials and commercialization remains far off. The guidelines are applied to genome edited plants, animals and microorganisms.
Kenya already has multiple agricultural gene editing research projects in the planning stages involving sorghum, maize, bananas, pigs and cattle. They include building resistance in the sorghum plant against the parasitic striga weed, controlling maize lethal necrosis disease, disease-resistant varieties of banana, drought-tolerance in maize and developing vaccines against African Swine Fever Virus (ASFV) and East Coast fever (ECF), two dangerous diseases affecting pigs and cattle, respectively.
South Africa, an early leader in the introduction of GM crops to Africa, has not yet embraced a path to gene editing approvals and commercialization. In October 2021 the government classified genome-edited plants as genetically modified crops based on its interpretation of the definition of 25-year-old legislation rather than on recent science-based risk analysis, suggesting a challenging path to widespread commercialization.
Products/Research
- Weed resistant sorghum, 2022: Kenyan scientists have developed a sorghum resistant to striga, a parasitic weed that attaches itself to roots of host crops and sucks out nutrients and kills the host crop.
- Pest resistant cowpea, 2021: After the successful introduction of GM Cowpea variation SAMPEA 20-T, the Ghanese government began commercialization of the same crop on the Ghanese market.
- Cassava resistant to brown streak disease, 2020: Uganda scientists are attempting to improve the tolerance of cassava against Cassava Brown Streak Virus using CRISPR.
- Climate smart banana, 2019: International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) in Kenya is developing bananas resistant to banana bacterial wilt, fusarium silt and banana streak virus, a process expected to take until at least 2023.
- Pest resistant cowpea, 2019: In coordination with the African Agricultural Technology Foundation, Nigeria begins the commercialisation of transgenic Cowpea variation SAMPEA 20-T, which is resistant to the pest Maruca Vitrata, responsible for 80% crop loss.
- Cassava with reduced cyanogen production, 2018: The Innovative Genomics Institute is attempting to use CRISPR to reduce the amount of toxic cyanogenic glycosides in cassava, thereby reducing the incidence rate of the toxico-neurological disease konzo, which can help increase crop yield in East, Central and West Africa
- Disease resistant cacao, 2018: Pennsylvania State University researchers used CRISPR to begin developing cacao with properties that will help African farmers produce more, including resistance to Cocoa Swollen Shoot Virus (CSSV), a common and devastating cacao disease in West Africa.
Regulatory Timeline
2022: Kenya’s National Biosafety Authority published science-based guidelines. Both gene-editing research and gene-edited products will be reviewed on a case-by-case basis.
2021: The government of South Africa classified genome-edited plants as genetically modified crops based on its interpretation of the definition of 25-year-old legislation rather than on recent science-based risk analysis.
2021: Ghana government resumes approval of countries first GMO crop, the insect resistant cowpea.
2021: Government of Nigeria approves National Biosafety Guideline on Gene Editing. Through the NBMA the Nigerian government authorized the guidelines on gene editing.
2019: Senegal drafts revised Biosafety Law that could expedite the approval process for certain genetically engineered products, but it is unclear how long the evaluation and approval process will take until the revised law is adopted. Whether the government of Senegal describes genetically engineered products as both GM and/or gene-edited is unclear.
2019: African Union considers harmonizing biosafety regulations to foster development of biosafety regulatory systems and tools and improve access and utilization by AU member-states.
2016: South Africa’s Department of Science and Technology commissions an expert report on the regulatory implications of NBTs, which recognized that NBTs may be more precise than transgenics and may thus require a lower/different level of regulatory scrutiny. No regulatory amendment has yet been formally proposed.
2016: The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) develops a draft regional biosafety law, but it is still undergoing evaluation and approval.
2015: Nigeria signs Biosafety Act regulating the handling and use of genetically engineered crops, requiring mandatory labeling of products or ingredients.
2013: African Science Academies in Ethiopia issues statement supporting biotechnology, saying “biotechnology-enhanced tools and products can play a significant and positive role in meeting Africa’s dire need and persistent challenge to break the seemingly perpetual cycle of hunger, malnutrition, and underdevelopment.”
2009: Kenya Biosafety Act 2009, which includes clauses on labelling GMOs, passes.
2009: Senegal Biosafety Law, which outlines the approval process for genetically engineered crops, is adopted.
2008: South Africa’s Consumer Protection Act No. 68 of 2008 requires GMO labels on food.
2003: Nigeria and Ghana ratify Cartagena Protocol, which oversees the transport and use of organisms modified by biotechnology.
2001: Nigeria establishes National Biotechnology Development Agency (NABDA) to promote, commercialize and regulate biotechnology products.
1998: South Africa’s National Environmental Management Act No. 107, which strictly regulates GMOs with “foreign” DNA (transgenes), passes.
1997: South Africa’s Genetically Modified Organisms Act No. 15 defines a GMO as “an organism the genes or genetic material of which has been modified in a way that does not occur naturally through mating or natural recombination or both” and requires risk and environmental impact assessments.
NGO Reaction
NGOs, many with connections with European advocacy groups, have been very active throughout Africa in discouraging the adoption of GMOs, and it is expected they will redirect their opposition to gene-edited crops as research progresses and various countries consider regulations.
The African Center for Biodiversity (ACB) and the Alliance for Food Sovereignty in Africa (AFSA) are among the most vocal opponents of biotechnology on the continent. ACB has proposed indefinite bans on gene editing. In 2019, AFSA has called on governments to “abandon all activities supporting the introduction of GMO seeds or seeds derived from new biotechnologies” including gene editing.
South African lobby group, Biowatch, has argued that genetic engineering is “controversial” with “dubious economic advantages”. Biowatch is funded by multiple anti-GMO organizations, most based in Europe.
In Ghana, scientists urged anti-GMO groups to accept gene editing, especially with climate change threatening to impact cacao production, but multiple farmer and agriculture organizations, many linked to global and European anti-GMO environmental groups, have supported the government’s decision in 2020 to prohibit GMOs.
Various anti-capitalist advocacy groups in Nigeria, led by the Health of Mother Earth Foundation (HOMEF), which has links to global anti-biotechnology groups including Canada’s ETC Group and the London and Boulder, CO-based Global Greengrants Fund, claims that embracing biotechnology will lead to western control of the African food economy.
Additional Resources
- Guidelines for determining the regulatory process of genome editing techniques in Kenya
- Genome Editing for Sustainable Agriculture in Africa
- Genome Editing in Africa’s Agriculture 2021, An Early Take-Off
- Regulatory approaches for genome edited agricultural plants in select countries and jurisdictions around the world
- Commercial Release of Genetically Modified Crops in Africa: Interface Between Biosafety Regulatory Systems and Varietal Release Systems
- Global Regulation of Genetically Modified Crops Amid the Gene Edited Crop Boom – A Review
- Government of Nigeria approved National Biosafety Guideline on Gene Editing
- South Africa’s Regulatory Approach for New Breeding Techniques 27 October 2021
- Democratizing CRISPR? Stories, practices, and politics of science and governance on the agricultural gene editing frontier
- Africa’s Gene Revolution
- National Biosafety (Implementation, ETC.) Regulations, 2017
- Genetically Modified Organisms Act 15 of 1997
Updated: 05/24/2023
